This article explores the language situation of the “the Belt and Road” countries,including official language,ethnic language,and foreign language.Drawing on an extensive secondary research of offi cial and scholarly literature,we propose that at least 65 countries are connected by “the Belt and Road”,and no less than 53 official languages are used in these countries.The study fi nds that most of the countries have one official language,except 12 countries which have more than one official language.Further,most of the countries emphasize the importance of official language and stipulate that in the constitutions.Arabic serves as the offi cial language of 14 countries,mostly in West Asia and North Africa.Moreover,various ethnic languages are spoken in “the Belt and Road” countries,and the distribution of ethnic languages is closely connected to the historical and political situations of the country concerned.Foreign language is an important part in the language situation of these countries.English is a global language and in many cases is a second language or a foreign language in “the Belt and Road” countries.Languages such as Russian have enduring regional infl uences and still are widely used in the former Soviet Union countries.Remarkably,Chinese becomes increasingly important along with the establishment of Confucius Institutes.The paper shows that “the Belt and Road” countries have rich linguistic resources,complex language situations,and that language issues can be crucial for the success of “the Belt and Road Initiatives”.
This paper examines the linguistic security issues in “the Belt and Road Initiatives” and proposes strategic plans and policy suggestions.Linguistic security is an increasingly important topic in macro-sociolinguistics and can be crucial in the realization of “the Belt and Road Initiatives”.Drawing on an extensive survey of linguistic security theories and practice,I propose four categories of linguistic security strategies:inner source linguistic security,external source linguistic security,dual source linguistic security,and multiple source linguistic security.Inner source linguistic security refers to the security issues of the languages and language resources inside China,including foreign languages,dialects,and minority languages in China.External source linguistic security refers to the security issues in language situations of the countries on “the Belt and Road”,and the potential risks that Chinese enterprises may face as a result of not knowing the local languages of “the Belt and Road” countries.Dual source linguistic security refers to the security issues in the bordering regions where linguistic risks may come from both inside China and the bordering countries.Multiple source linguistic security refers to the security issues involving new and complex factors such as terrorism,Internet security,and voicing potentials.Based on the four linguistic security perspectives,I propose four policy suggestions:1)focusing on linguistic security planning studies of “the Belt and Road” countries,2)initiating strategic studies on cultural security,3)exploring the governing capabilities of the bordering regions,and 4)establishing risk assessment and coping mechanisms of linguistic security.
The realization of “the Belt and Road (B & R) Initiatives” urgently needs a large number of language-qualifi ed personnel.This paper is to report what has been refl ected by the writer on the issue of producing such people for the B & R.As a result,three problems are identified,which include:1) when considering defi ciency in language-qualified personnel for the B&R,we tend to take an inner perspective only,which means looking at China without thinking of countries and regions along the B & R at the same time;2) lack the mechanism of designing top-down BA programs of less commonly taught languages;and 3) the current curriculum without a sound theoretical basis and clear goals of producing specifi ed types of language-qualifi ed personnel.To solve these problems,three suggestions are proposed:1) in order to construct a better curriculum,three elements (i.e.national/social needs,individual students’ development and language learning theories) need to be considered simultaneously;2) with both inner and outer perspectives,language-qualified personnel for the B & R must be produced in diversifi ed programs;and 3)lessons from the American practice can be taken to make ‘Language+X’ combined programs in China more effective.
This paper reflects on the international spread of Chinese language in view of its accommodation to “the Belt and Road Initiatives”.The spread of Chinese language in the Old Silk Road countries has a history of over 2000 years.In different historical periods,the means of,as well as the contributing factors for the spread of Chinese vary greatly.“The Belt and Road Initiatives” released recently provides an opportunity for promoting the Chinese language through the bilateral economic,cultural,trade and other co-operations.It is proposed in this paper that the international spread of Chinese shall be compatible with the industrial expansion and the economic and trade development of “the Belt and Road” countries.Given the uneven distribution of Confucius Institutes over the world,this paper suggests that more Confucius Institutes should be established in “the Belt and Road” countries and the locations chosen should cater to the needs as well as the industrial development patterns of the regions.Such endeavors may enhance the utility of the Chinese language and promote its international spread.
This paper examines the language contact and confl ict of the Sino-Burma Jinghpo language varieties used in China and in Burma.Drawing on a historical review of the Jinghpo language varieties,the paper argues that ethnic minority languages and language varieties are important linguistic resources,and making a proper use of the resources is crucial for the win-win outcome of interaction between the peoples on both sides of the national borders.The study fi nds that:1) the ethnic Jinghpo communities are mainly scattered in the bordering regions of China,Burma,and India;2) the Jinghpo language is a marker of ethnic identity,and the Jinghpo people of different nationalities can easily converse in the language;3) the Jinghpo language varieties are influenced by the national languages or common languages of the respective countries and therefore show language variation to different degrees;4) the codification of the written Jinghpo language on both sides of the borders reflects the competing and cooperative nature of the bordering language varieties;and 5) the high intelligibility between the Jinghpo varieties may pose linguistic security questions,for instance,unwanted ideological or political discourses may spread among the users of the Jinghpo language varieties with low levels of surveillance.The author proposes that:1) scholars and policy makers have to have a thorough understanding of the contact and conflict between the Sino-Burma Jinghpo language varieties used on the two sides of the borders;2) this understanding has important policy implications;3)the varieties can be used effectively as crucial linguistic resources;and 4) the importance of a language is related to the economic and political situation of the speakers of the language.The scholarly research has been focused on the description of the language;however,more theoretical studies are needed in the future.
Language policy and planning (LPP) has explicit and implicit dimensions.Different from explicit policies,implicit LPP is a loosely-defi ned concept encompassing notions like unplanned language planning,non-offi cial policy,covert policy,non-linguistic policy,and implicit goals of language policy.Taking the implicit LPP as a methodological perspective,this paper examines the English as a medium of instruction (EMI) planning activities in three Southeast Asian countries,namely Malaysia,Singapore and Thailand.The adoption of EMI policy in non-native English speaking countries tends to be delineated in offi cial discourse as a language acquisition planning endeavour in order to improve students’ English language profi ciency and serve the economic good in the milieu of globalization.However,part of the EMI policy,particularly its political intentions,is left unstated and the de facto policy in practice is often somewhat disparate from the explicit policy.This paper is intended to reveal the nature of implicit EMI policies in Southeast Asia comprehensively.First,existing studies of implicit LPP are reviewed and the main constructs are generalized.Then the EMI policies in Malaysia,Singapore and Thailand are explored to unravel the complex interactions among the wide range of social,cultural and historical contexts,policy texts and agency of actors involved.This implicit LPP study of Southeast Asian countries may deepen our understanding of the local cultures and the promotion of harmony among diverse cultures,and in the meantime,contribute to the realization of the national vision of “the Belt and Road Initiatives” being implemented in China.